EACH QUESTION SHOULD BE 400 WORDS, APA FORMAT, 2 SCHOLARLY REFERENCES. ANSWER EACH SEPARATELY PLEASE 1) Identify potential hazards of hospitalization for all older adult patients (including immobility, delirium, medication side effects, malnutrition, pressure ulcers, procedures, peri- and postoperative periods, and hospital-acquired infections) and identify potential prevention strategies. 2) Describe two historical events that have influenced the development of ethical codes and regulations for nursing and healthcare research. Explain how each event has impacted ethical codes and regulations. Purchase the answer to view it
1) Potential Hazards of Hospitalization for Older Adult Patients and Prevention Strategies
Hospitalization poses several potential hazards for older adult patients, significantly impacting their physical and mental well-being. This section will highlight some of these hazards and provide potential prevention strategies for each.
a) Immobility: Immobility in the hospital setting can lead to muscle weakness, loss of functional capacity, and increased risk of falls. Older adults may experience difficulties with mobility due to various factors, including bed rest, use of physical restraints, and limited opportunities for ambulation. Prevention strategies include early mobility programs involving physical therapy, regular assessment and monitoring of mobility levels, use of assistive devices, and encouraging patients to walk as tolerated.
b) Delirium: Delirium, characterized by confusion, disorientation, and altered cognition, is a common complication among hospitalized older adults. It can be caused by factors such as medication side effects, infections, or metabolic disturbances. Prevention strategies include frequent assessment of cognitive function using validated tools, implementing non-pharmacological interventions such as orientation and cognitive stimulation techniques, minimizing the use of sedatives and anticholinergic medications, and ensuring adequate sleep-wake cycles.
c) Medication side effects: Older adults are particularly vulnerable to medication-related adverse effects due to age-related physiological changes and potential interactions between multiple medications. Prevention strategies involve assessing medication regimens for appropriateness, considering dose adjustments based on renal and hepatic function, utilizing computerized physician order entry systems with decision support, conducting medication reviews to identify potential drug-drug interactions, and educating patients and caregivers about medication administration and potential side effects.
d) Malnutrition: Hospitalized older adults are at risk of malnutrition due to various factors, including reduced appetite, alterations in taste and smell, and dietary restrictions. Prevention strategies include nutritional screening upon admission, regular assessment of dietary intake, involving dietitians in care planning, providing modified diets to meet individual needs, and offering assistance with feeding if necessary.
e) Pressure ulcers: Immobility, limited mobility, and prolonged bed rest can predispose older adult patients to the development of pressure ulcers, which can lead to significant morbidity. Prevention strategies include frequent assessment of the skin for early signs of pressure damage, implementing preventive measures such as repositioning strategies, providing adequate support surfaces (e.g., pressure-relieving mattresses), optimizing nutrition, and educating healthcare providers and caregivers on pressure ulcer prevention and management.
f) Procedures, peri- and postoperative periods: Hospitalized older adults may undergo various procedures and surgeries, which can pose significant risks due to age-related physiological changes, comorbidities, and potential complications. Prevention strategies involve careful pre-operative assessment and optimization of comorbidities, utilizing geriatric-specific protocols, ensuring perioperative pain management, implementing early mobilization, and providing comprehensive postoperative care.
g) Hospital-acquired infections: Older adults are more susceptible to hospital-acquired infections due to age-related immune system changes. Prevention strategies include effective hand hygiene practices, promoting adherence to infection control protocols, properly disinfecting equipment and surfaces, implementing active surveillance, and ensuring appropriate use of antimicrobial agents to prevent the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms.
In conclusion, hospitalization poses several hazards for older adult patients. However, by implementing appropriate prevention strategies aimed at addressing immobility, delirium, medication side effects, malnutrition, pressure ulcers, procedures, and hospital-acquired infections, healthcare providers can mitigate these risks and improve the overall well-being of older adults during their hospital stay.
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2) Historical Events Influencing Ethical Codes and Regulations for Nursing and Healthcare Research
Ethical codes and regulations in nursing and healthcare research have been shaped by various historical events that have underscored the importance of protecting human subjects and promoting ethical conduct. This section will discuss two such events and their impact on ethical codes and regulations.
a) Nuremberg Code: The Nuremberg Trials, held from 1945 to 1949, were a series of military tribunals that prosecuted Nazi war criminals. The trials highlighted the heinous medical experiments conducted by Nazi physicians on concentration camp inmates without their informed consent. The revelations from these trials led to the establishment of the Nuremberg Code in 1947, which outlined ten principles to guide research involving human subjects.
The Nuremberg Code emphasized concepts such as voluntary informed consent, the importance of minimizing risks, and the need for a researcher’s qualifications to outweigh any potential benefits. This landmark document profoundly influenced the development of ethical codes and regulations for nursing and healthcare research, emphasizing the primacy of respect for human dignity, autonomy, and protection of vulnerable populations.
b) Tuskegee Syphilis Study: In the United States, the infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Study conducted from 1932 to 1972 became a catalyst for modern ethical principles in research. The study involved withholding treatment for syphilis in African American men, even after effective treatment became available, without their informed consent. It flagrantly violated ethical standards and raised concerns about the rights and welfare of research participants.
The revelations of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study led to significant reforms in research ethics. These reforms included the establishment of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) to protect human subjects, enhanced regulations for informed consent procedures, and the recognition of the need for ethical guidelines to guide research practices.
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study serves as a powerful reminder to researchers and healthcare professionals of the importance of upholding ethical standards, obtaining informed consent, and ensuring the overall well-being of research participants.
In summary, the Nuremberg Code and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study represent two historical events that have significantly shaped ethical codes and regulations in nursing and healthcare research. They have underscored the need for principles such as informed consent, respect for human subjects, and the avoidance of harm. These events have served as important lessons and have instigated reforms to protect research participants and ensure ethical conduct in research.
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